Learning About HIV/AIDS and HIV Clinical Trials
Glossary of HIV-Related Terms
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This glossary contains most (but not all) up-to-date terms commonly used to describe the HIV virus, its pathogenesis, its associated treatments, and the medical management of related conditions.
HIV/AIDS GLOSSARY
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A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M
N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z
A
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ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS):
The most severe manifestation of infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention list numerous opportunistic infections and neoplasms (cancers) which, in the presence of HIV infection, constitute an AIDS diagnosis. In addition, a CD4+ T-cell count below 200/mm3 in the presence of HIV infection constitutes an AIDS diagnosis. Before treatment was available, the period between infection with HIV and the onset of AIDS averaged 10 years in the United States. People with AIDS would often suffer infections of the lungs, brain, eyes and other organs, and frequently suffer debilitating weight loss, diarrhea and a type of cancer called Kaposi's sarcoma. Now it is not unheard of having patients live 25 years and more. See also CD4 (T4) or CD4+ Cells; Diarrhea; HIV Disease; Kaposi's Sarcoma; Opportunistic Infection; Wasting Syndrome.
ACUTE INFECTION:
An infection causing disease with a sudden onset, severity and (often) short course. As related to HIV infection: Once the virus enters the body, HIV infects a large number of CD4+ T cells and replicates rapidly. During this acute or primary phase of infection, the blood contains many viral particles that spread throughout the body, seeding themselves in various organs, particularly the lymphoid tissues. See also Acute Retroviral Syndrome; CD4 (T4) or CD4+ Cells; Infection; Lymphoid Organs.
ACUTE RETROVIRAL SYNDROME:
The acute or primary HIV infection often passes unrecognized, but may be present as a mononucleosis-like syndrome within three months of the infection. The diagnosis is made by demonstrating HIV antibody seroconversion. See also Seroconversion.
ADMINISTRATION:
(Route of Administration). A term used to refer to how a drug or therapy is introduced into the body. Systemic administration means that the drug goes throughout the body (usually carried in the bloodstream), and includes oral administration (by mouth) and intravenous administration (injection into the vein). Local administration means that the drug is applied or introduced into the specific area affected by the disease, such as application directly onto the affected skin surface (topical administration). The effects of most therapies depend upon the ability of the drug to reach the affected area, thus the route of administration and consequent distribution of a drug in the body is an important determinant of its effectiveness.
AIDS:
See Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome.
AIDS CLINICAL TRIALS GROUP (ACTG):
The ACTG is composed of a number of US medical centers that valuate treatment for HIV and HIV-associated infections. ACTG studies are sponsored by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.
AIDS-RELATED CANCERS:
Several cancers are more common or more aggressive in people infected with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. These malignancies include certain types of immune system cancers known as lymphomas, Kaposi's sarcoma and anogenital cancers primarily affecting the cervix and the anus. HIV, or the immune suppression it induces, appears to play a role in the development of these cancers. See also Cervical Cancer; Kaposi's Sarcoma; Lymphoma.
AIDS SERVICE ORGANIZATION (ASO):
A health association, support agency or other service active in the prevention and treatment of AIDS.
ALTERNATIVE THERAPY:
In Western countries, alternative therapy refers to any type of medicine that supplements or is used in lieu of biomedicine (i.e., conventional medicine) or allopathic medicine. In other parts of the world, where traditional medicine predominates, the term may refer to biomedicine itself.
ANALOG:
In chemistry, a compound with a structure similar to that of another compound, but differing from it in respect to certain components or structural makeup; it may have a similar or opposite action metabolically.
ANEMIA:
A lower than normal number of red blood cells.
ANTIBODIES:
Molecules in the blood or secretory fluids that tag, destroy or neutralize bacteria, viruses or other harmful toxins. They are members of a class of proteins known as immunoglobulins, which are produced and secreted by B lymphocytes in response to stimulation by antigens. An antibody is specific to an antigen. See also Antigen; Lymphocyte.
ANTIRETROVIRAL AGENTS:
Substances used against retroviruses such as HIV. See also Retrovirus.
ARM:
A group of participants in a clinical trial, all of whom receive the same treatment or placebo. See also Placebo.
ASYMPTOMATIC:
Without symptoms. Usually used in AIDS literature to describe a person who has a positive reaction to one of several tests for HIV antibodies, but who shows no clinical symptoms of the disease.
AZT:
Azidothymidine (also called zidovudine or ZDV; the Burroughs-Wellcome trade name is Retrovir). One of the first drugs used against HIV infection, AZT is a nucleoside analog that suppresses replication of HIV. See also Nucleoside Analog.
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BASELINE:
1. Information gathered at the beginning of a study from which variations found in the study are measured. 2. A known value or quantity with which an unknown is compared when measured or assessed.
INDING ANTIBODY:
As related to HIV infection: An antibody that attaches to some part of the HIV virus. Binding antibodies may or may not adversely affect the virus.
BLINDED STUDY:
A clinical trial in which participants are unaware as to whether or not they are in the experimental or control arm of the study.
B LYMPHOCYTES (B CELLS):
One of the two major classes of lymphocytes. During infections, these cells are transformed into plasma cells that produce large quantities of antibody directed at specific pathogens. This transformation occurs through interactions with various types of T cells and other components of the immune system. In persons with AIDS, the functional ability of both the B and the T lymphocytes is damaged, with the T lymphocytes being the principal site of infection by the HIV virus. See also Lymphocyte; T Cells.
BODY FLUIDS:
Any fluid in the human body, such as blood, urine, saliva, sputum (spit), tears, semen, mother's milk or vaginal secretions. Only blood, semen, mother's milk and vaginal secretions have been linked directly to the transmission of the HIV virus.
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CD8 (T8) CELLS:
A protein embedded in the cell surface of suppressor T lymphocytes. Also called cytotoxic T cells. See also CD Nomenclature; CD4 (T4) or CD4+ Cells; T Cells.
CD4 (T4) or CD4+ CELLS:
1. White blood cells killed or disabled during HIV infection. These cells normally orchestrate the immune response, signaling other cells in the immune system to perform their special functions. Also known as T helper cells. 2. HIV's preferred targets are cells that have a docking molecule called cluster designation 4 (CD4) on their surfaces. Cells with this molecule are known as CD4-positive (or CD4+) cells. Destruction of CD4+ lymphocytes is the major cause of the immunodeficiency observed in AIDS, and decreasing CD4+ lymphocyte levels appear to be the best indicator of morbidity in these patients. Although CD4 counts fall, the total T-cell level remains fairly constant through the course of HIV disease, due to a concomitant increase in the CD8+ cells. The ratio of CD4+ to CD8+ cells is therefore an important measure of disease progression. See also CD Nomenclature; CD8 (T8) Cells; Immunodeficiency.
CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY (CMI):
The branch of the immune system in which the reaction to foreign material is performed by specific defense cells (i.e., killer cells, macrophage and other white blood cells) rather than antibodies.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS):
Composed of the brain, spinal cord and its coverings (meninges).
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) DAMAGE:
(By HIV infection). Although monocytes and macrophages can be infected by HIV, they appear to be relatively resistant to killing. However, these cells travel throughout the body and carry HIV to various organs, especially the lungs and the brain. People infected with HIV often experience abnormalities in the central nervous system. Investigators have hypothesized that an accumulation of HIV in brain and nerve cells or the inappropriate release of cytokines or toxic byproducts by these cells may be to blame for the neurological manifestations of HIV disease. See also Cytokines; Macrophage; Monocyte.
CLINICAL:
Pertaining to or founded on observation and treatment of patients, as distinguished from theoretical or basic science.
CLINICAL LATENCY:
The state or period of an infectious agent, such as a virus or bacterium, living or developing in a host without producing clinical symptoms. As related to HIV infection: Although infected individuals usually exhibit a period of clinical latency with little evidence of disease, the virus is never truly latent. Even early in the disease, HIV is active within lymphoid organs where large amounts of virus become trapped in the FDC network. Surrounding germinal centers are areas rich in CD4+ T cells. These cells increasingly become infected and viral particles accumulate both in infected cells and as free virus. See also CD4 (T4) or CD4+ Cells; Lymphoid Organs.
CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINES:
Standards for physicians to adhere to in prescribing care for a given condition or illness.
CLINICAL TRIAL:
A carefully designed and executed investigation of the effects of a drug (or vaccine) administered to human subjects. The goal is to define the clinical efficacy and pharmacological effects (toxicity, side effects, incompatibilities or interactions) of the drug. The US government, through the Food and Drug Administration, requires strict testing of all new drugs and vaccines prior to their approval for use as therapeutic agents.
COFACTORS:
1. Substances, microorganisms or characteristics of individuals that may influence the progression of a disease or the likelihood of becoming ill. 2. A substance, such as a metallic ion or coenzyme, that must be associated with an enzyme for the enzyme to function. 3. A situation or activity that may increase a person's susceptibility to AIDS. Examples of such cofactors are other infections, drugs and alcohol use, poor nutrition, genetic factors and stress.
COMPASSIONATE USE:
A method of providing experimental drugs to very sick patients who have no other treatment options. Often, case-by-case approval must be obtained from the Food and Drug Administration for "compassionate use" of a drug.
CONCOMITANT DRUGS:
Drugs that are taken together. Certain concomitant medications may have adverse interactions.
CONTAGIOUS:
Any infectious disease capable of being transmitted by casual contact from one person to another. Casual contact can be defined as normal day-to-day contact between people at home, school, work or in the community. A contagious infection (e.g., a common cold) can be communicable by casual contact; an infectious infection, on the other hand, is communicable by intimate contact such as sex. AIDS is infectious, not contagious.
CONTROL:
A standard against which experimental observations may be evaluated. In clinical trials, one group of patients is given an experimental drug, while another group (i.e., the control group) is given either a standard treatment for the disease or a placebo. See also Placebo.
CUTANEOUS:
Of, pertaining to or affecting the skin.
CYTOMEGALOVIRUS (CMV):
A herpes virus that is a common cause of opportunistic diseases in people with AIDS and other people with immune suppression. While CMV can infect most organs of the body, people with AIDS are most susceptible to CMV retinitis (disease of the eye) and colitis (disease of the colon). See also Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Retinitis.
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DDC:
Dideoxycytidine (zalcitabine, HIVID), a nucleoside analog drug that inhibits the replication of HIV. See also Nucleoside Analog.
DDI:
Dideoxyinosine (didanosine, Videx), a nucleoside analog drug that inhibits the replication of HIV. See also Nucleoside Analog.
D4T:
(Also known as Stavudine and Zerit). d4T is a dideoxynucleoside pyrimidine analog (2'3'-didehydro-3'-deoxythymidine). Like other nucleoside analogs, d4T inhibits HIV replication by inducing premature viral DNA chain termination. d4T has been approved for patients with advanced HIV infection intolerant to or failing other antiretroviral drugs. See also Nucleoside Analog.
DIARRHEA:
Uncontrolled, loose and frequent bowel movements. In the United States, almost all people with AIDS develop diarrhea at some time in the course of their disease. Severe or prolonged diarrhea can lead to weight loss and malnutrition. The excessive loss of fluid that may occur with AIDS-related diarrhea can be life-threatening. There are many possible causes of diarrhea in people who have AIDS. The most common infectious organism causing AIDS-related diarrhea include cytomegalovirus (CMV); the parasites Cryptosporidium, Microsporidia and Giardia lamblia; and the bacterium Mycobacterium avium-inracellulare (MAC). Other bacteria and parasites that cause diarrheal symptoms in otherwise healthy people may cause more severe, prolonged or recurrent diarrhea in people with HIV or AIDS. See also Cytomegalovirus; Giardiasis; Microsporidiosis; Mycobacterium Avium Complex.
DNA:
(Deoxyribonucleic Acid). 1. The molecular chain found in genes within the nucleus of each cell, which carries the genetic information that enables cells to reproduce. 2. DNA is the principal constituent of chromosomes, the structures that transmit hereditary characteristics. The amount of DNA is constant for all typical cells of any given species of plant or animal (including humans), regardless of the size or function of that cell. Each DNA molecule is a long, two-stranded chain made up of subunits, called nucleotides, containing a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T) and cytosine (C). In 1953 J.D. Watson and F.H. Crick proposed that the strands, connected by hydrogen bonds between the bases, were coiled in a double helix. Adenine bonds only with thymine (A-T or T-A) and guanine only with cytosine (G-C or C-G). The complementarity of this bonding ensures that DNA can be replicated (i.e., that identical copies can be made in order to transmit genetic information to the next generation).
DORMANCY:
See Latency.
DOSE-RANGING STUDY:
A clinical trial in which two or more doses of an agent (such as a drug) are tested against each other to determine which dose works best and is least harmful. See also Clinical Trial.
DOUBLE-BLIND STUDY:
A clinical trial design in which neither the participating individuals nor the study staff know which patients are receiving the experimental drug and which are receiving placebo or another therapy. Double-blind trials are thought to produce objective results, since the doctor's and patient's expectations about the experimental drug do not affect the outcome. See also Clinical Trial; Placebo.
DRUG-DRUG INTERACTION:
A modification of the effect of a drug when administered with another drug. The effect may be an increase or a decrease in the action of either substance, or it may be an adverse effect that is not normally associated with either drug.
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EFFICACY:
(Of a drug or treatment). The maximum ability of a drug or treatment to produce a result regardless of dosage. A drug passes efficacy trials if it is effective at the dose tested and against the illness for which it is prescribed. In the procedure mandated by the Food and Drug Administration, phase II clinical trials gauge efficacy, phase III trials confirm it.
ELISA:
(Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay). A laboratory test to determine the presence of antibodies to HIV in the blood. A positive ELISA test generally is confirmed by the Western Blot test. See also Antibodies; Western Blot.
ENVELOPE:
In virology, a protein covering that packages the virus's genetic information. The outer coat, or envelope, of HIV is composed of two layers of fat-like molecules called lipids taken from the membranes of human cells. Embedded in the envelope are numerous cellular protein, as well as mushroom-shaped HIV proteins that protrude from the surface. Each mushroom is thought to consist of a cap made of four glycoprotein molecules called gp120 and a stem consisting of four gp41 molecules embedded in the envelope. The virus uses these proteins to attach to and infect cells. See also Glycoprotein; gp41; gp120; Lipid.
ENZYME:
A protein that accelerates a specific chemical reaction without altering itself (i.e., a catalyst).
EPIDEMIC:
A disease that spreads rapidly through a demographic segment of the human population, such as everyone in a given geographic area, a military base, or similar population unit, or everyone of a certain age or sex, such as the children or women of a region. Epidemic diseases can be spread from person to person or from a contaminated source such as food or water.
EPIDEMIOLOGY:
The branch of medical science that deals with the incidence, distribution and control of a disease in a population.
EXCLUSION/INCLUSION CRITERIA:
The medical or social standards determining whether a person may or may not be allowed to enter a clinical trial. For example, some trials may not include people with chronic liver disease, or may exclude people with certain drug allergies; others may exclude men or women or only include people with a lowered T-cell count.
EXPANDED ACCESS:
A general term for methods of distributing experimental drugs to patients who are unable to participate in ongoing clinical trials and have no other treatment options. Specific types of expanded access mechanisms include parallel track, Treatment IND, and compassionate use. See also Investigational New Drug.
F
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FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION (FDA):
The Public Health Service agency responsible for (among others) ensuring the safety and effectiveness of drugs, biologics, vaccines and medical devices used in the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of HIV infection, AIDS and AIDS-related opportunistic infections. The FDA also works with the blood banking industry to safeguard the nation's blood supply. See also Public Health Service.
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GENE:
1. A unit of DNA that carries information for the biosynthesis of a specific product (in the cell). 2. Ultimate unit by which inheritable characteristics are transmitted to succeeding generations in all living organisms. Genes are contained by, and arranged along the length of, the chromosome. The gene is composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Each chromosome of each species has a definite number and arrangement of genes, which govern both the structure and metabolic functions of the cells and thus of the entire organism. They provide information for the synthesis of enzymes and other proteins and specify when these substances are to be made. Alteration of either gene number or arrangement can result in mutation (a change in the inheritable traits). See also DNA.
GENETIC ENGINEERING:
Group of new research techniques that manipulate the DNA (genetic material) of cells. The gene-splicing technique, which produces recombinant DNA, is a method of transporting selected genes from one species to another. For example, in this technique, the genes, which are actually portions of molecules of DNA, are removed from the donor (insect, plant, mammal or other organism) and spliced into the genetic material of a virus; then the virus is allowed to infect recipient bacteria. In this way the bacteria become recipients of both viral and foreign genetic material. When the virus replicates within the bacteria, large quantities of the foreign as well as viral material are made.
GENOME:
The complete set of genes in the chromosomes of each cell of a particular organism. See also Gene.
GP41:
Glycoprotein 41, a protein embedded in the outer envelope of HIV. Plays a key role in HIV's infection of CD4+ T cells by facilitating the fusion of the viral and the cell membranes. See also CD4 (T4) or CD4+ Cells; Envelope.
GP120:
Glycoprotein 120, a protein that protrudes from the surface of HIV and binds to CD4+ T cells. See also CD4 (T4) or CD4+ Cells.
GP160:
Glycoprotein 160, a precursor of HIV envelope proteins gp41 and gp120.
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HELPER/SUPPRESSOR RATIO:
(Of T cells). T cells are lymphocytes (white blood cells) that are formed in the thymus and are part of the immune system; they have been found to be abnormal in people with AIDS. The normal ratio of helper T cells (CD4+ cells) to suppressor T cells (CD8+ cells) is approximately 2:1. This becomes inverted in people with AIDS, but may be abnormal for a host of other temporary reasons. See also CD4 (T4) or CD4+ Cells; CD8 (T8) Cells; Lymphocyte; Thymus.
HELPER T CELLS:
See CD4 (T4) or CD4+ Cells.
HEMOGLOBIN:
The component of red blood cells that carries oxygen.
HEMOPHILIA:
An inherited disease that prevents the normal clotting of blood.
HIV-1:
See Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1.
HIV-2:
See Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2.
HIV DISEASE:
Characterized by a gradual deterioration of immune function. During the course of infection, crucial immune cells called CD4+ T cells are disabled and killed, and their numbers progressively decline. CD4+ T cells play a crucial role in the immune response, signaling other cells in the immune system to perform their special functions. See also Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome; CD4 (T4) or CD4+ Cells; Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1.
HIV-RELATED TUBERCULOSIS:
See Tuberculosis.
HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS TYPE 1 (HIV-1):
1. The retrovirus isolated and recognized as the etiologic (i.e., causing or contributing to the cause of a disease) agent of AIDS. HIV-1 is classified as a lentivirus in a subgroup of retroviruses. See also Lentivirus; Retrovirus. 2. Most viruses and all bacteria, plants and animals have genetic codes made up of DNA, which uses RNA to build specific proteins. The genetic material of a retrovirus such as HIV is the RNA itself. HIV inserts its own RNA into the host cell's DNA, preventing the host cell from carrying out its natural functions and turning it into an HIV virus factory. See also DNA; Ribonucleic Acid.
HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS TYPE 2 (HIV-2):
A virus closely related to HIV-1 that has been found to cause immune suppression. Most commonin Africa.
HYPOTHESIS:
A tentative statement or supposition that may then be tested through research.
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IMMUNE DEFICIENCY:
A breakdown or inability of certain parts of the immune system to function, thus making a person susceptible to certain diseases that they would not ordinarily develop.
IMMUNE RESPONSE:
The activity of the immune system against foreign substances.
IMMUNE SYSTEM:
The complex functions of the body that recognize foreign agents or substances, neutralize them and recall the response later when confronted with the same challenge.
IMMUNITY:
A natural or acquired resistance to a specific disease. Immunity may be partial or complete, long-lasting or temporary.
IMMUNODEFICIENCY:
A deficiency of immune response or a disorder characterized by deficient immune response; classified as antibody (B cell), cellular (T cell), combined deficiency or phagocytic dysfunction disorders.
IMMUNOGENICITY:
The ability of an antigen or vaccine to stimulate an immune response. See also Antigen.
IMMUNOMODULATOR:
Any substance that influences the immune system.
IMMUNOSTIMULANT:
Any agent or substance that triggers or enhances the body's defense; also called immunopotentiators.
IMMUNOSUPPRESSION:
A state of the body in which the immune system is damaged and does not perform its normal functions. Immunosuppression may be induced by drugs or result from certain disease processes, such as HIV infection. See also Immune System.
IMMUNOTHERAPY:
Treatment aimed at reconstituting an impaired immune system. See also Immune System.
IMMUNOTOXIN:
A plant or animal toxin (i.e., poison) that is attached to a monoclonal antibody and used to destroy a specific target cell. See also Antibiotic; Monoclonal Antibody.
INCLUSION/EXCLUSION CRITERIA:
The medical or social standards determining whether a person may or may not be allowed to enter a clinical trial. For example, some trials may not allow people with chronic liver disease or with certain drug allergies; others may exclude men or women, or only include people with a lowered T-cell count.
INFECTION:
The state or condition in which the body (or part of the body) is invaded by an infectious agent (e.g., a bacterium, fungus or virus), which multiplies and produces an injurious effect (active infection). As related to HIV: Infection typically begins when HIV encounters a CD4+ cell. The HIV surface protein gp120 binds tightly to the CD4 molecule on the cell's surface. The membranes of the virus and the cell fuse, a process governed by gp41, another surface protein. The viral core, containing HIV's RNA, proteins and enzymes, is released into the cell. See CD4 (T4) or CD4+ Cells; gp41; gp120.
INFORMED CONSENT:
Type of protection available to people considering entering a drug trial. Before entering the trial, participants must sign a consent form that contains an explanation of: (a) why the research is being done, (b) what researchers want to accomplish, (c) what will be done during the trial and for how long, (d) what risks are in the trial, (e) what benefits can be expected from the trial, (f) what other treatments are available, and (g) the participant's right to leave the trial at any time. See also Clinical Trial.
INOCULATION:
The introduction of a substance (inoculum; e.g., a vaccine, serum or virus) into the body to produce or to increase immunity to the disease or condition associated with the substance. See also Vaccine.
INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB):
1. A committee of physicians, statisticians, community advocates and others that ensures that a clinical trial is ethical and that the rights of study participants are protected. All clinical trials in the United States must be approved by an IRB before they begin. See also Clinical Trial. 2. Every institution that conducts or supports biomedical or behavioral research involving human subjects must, by federal regulation, have an IRB that initially approves and periodically reviews the research so as to protect the rights of human subjects.
INTEGRASE:
An HIV enzyme used by the virus to integrate its genetic material into the host cell's DNA. See also DNA; Enzyme.
INTEGRATION:
The process by which the different parts of an organism are made a functional and structural whole, especially through the activity of the nervous system and of hormones. As related to HIV: The process by which the viral DNA migrates to the cell's nucleus, where it is spliced into the host's DNA with the help of viral integrase. Once incorporated, HIV DNA is called the provirus and is duplicated together with the cell's genes every time the cell divides. Recent reports suggest that HIV's DNA also can integrate into the DNA of nondividing cells such as macro-phages and brain and nerve cells. See also Integrase; Macrophage.
INTERLEUKIN-2 (IL-2):
One of a family of molecules that control the growth and function of many types of lymphocytes. Interleukin-2 is an immune system protein produced in the body by T cells. It has potent effects on the proliferation, differentiation and activity of a number of immune system cells, including T cells, B cells and natural killer cells. Commercially, IL-2 is produced by recombinant DNA technology and is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of metastatic renal (i.e., kidney) cell cancer. Studies have shown that in the test tube, addition of IL-2 can improve some of the immunologic functions that are abnormal in HIV-infected patients. In addition, IL-2 is a growth factor for T cells, causing them to increase in number. In a clinical study with IL-2, it was found that in a small number of HIV-infected patients, IL-2 boosted levels of CD4+ T cells (i.e., the infection-fighting white blood cells normally destroyed during HIV infection) for more than two years, a far longer time than typically seen with currently available anti-HIV drugs. See also Biotechnology; B Lymphocytes; Genetic Engineering; Killer T Cells; Lymphocyte; T Cells.
INVESTIGATIONAL NEW DRUG (IND):
The status of an experimental drug after the Food and Drug Administration agrees that it can be tested in people.
IN VITRO:
("In glass"). An artificial environment created outside a living organism (e.g., a test tube or culture plate) used in experimental research to study a disease or process.
IN VIVO:
("In life"). Studies conducted within a living organism (e.g., animal or human studies).
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KAPOSI'S SARCOMA:
1. A previously uncommon form of cancer that attacks the connective tissue, bones, cartilage and muscles of the body. The cancer may spread and also attack the eyes. If the cancerous area is near the surface of the skin, lesions inches in length may develop. This disease was initially seen only in elderly men and natives of Central Africa. Experimental work has shown that the AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma and the Central African variety respond differently to some types of medications. Radiotherapy and chemotherapy are usually recommended. 2. A type of cancer characterized by abnormal growths of blood vessels that develop into purplish or brown lesions. It is suspected that the cause of Kaposi's sarcoma is a newly found herpes virus.
KILLER T CELLS:
Killer cells infected with HIV or other viruses or transformed by cancer. Also known as cytotoxic T cells (or cytotoxic T lymphocytes). See also Null Cell; T Cells.
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LATENCY:
The period when an organism (i.e., a virus or a bacterium) is in the body and not producing any ill effects. See also Clinical Latency.
LIPID:
Any of a group of fats and fat-like compounds, including sterols, fatty acids and many other substances.
LONG-TERM NON-PROGRESSORS:
Individuals who are HIV-infected for seven or more years, have stable CD4+ T cell counts of 600 or more cells per cubic millimeter of blood, no HIV-related diseases and no previous antiretroviral therapy. Data suggest that this phenomenon is associated with the maintenance of the integrity of the lymphoid tissues and with less virus-trapping in the lymph nodes than seen in other HIV-infected individuals.
LYMPH NODES:
Small, bean-sized organs of the immune system, distributed widely throughout the body. Lymph fluid is filtered through the lymph nodes in which all types of lymphocytes take up temporary residence. Antigens that enter the body find their way into lymph or blood and are filtered out by the lymph nodes or spleen respectively, for attack by the immune system. See also Antigen; Lymphocyte.
LYMPHOCYTE:
A white blood cell. Present in the blood, lymph and lymphoid tissue. See also B Lymphocytes; Lymph; T Cells.
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MACROPHAGE:
A large immune cell that devours invading pathogens and other intruders. Stimulates other immune cells by presenting them with small pieces of the invader. Macrophages can harbor large quantities of HIV without being killed, acting as reservoirs of the virus.
MEMORY CELLS:
A subset of T lymphocytes that have been exposed to specific antigens and can then proliferate (i.e., reproduce) on subsequent immune system encounters with the same antigen. See also Antigen; T Cells.
MESSENGER RNA:
Also referred to as mRNA. An RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries the genetic code for a particular protein from the nuclear DNA (i.e., the DNA in the cell's nucleus) to a ribosome in the cytoplasm and acts as a template, or pattern, for the formation of that protein. See also Cytoplasm; Ribosome.
METABOLISM:
The sum of the processes by which a particular substance is handled (as by assimilation and incorporation, or by detoxification and excretion) in the living body.
METABOLITE:
Any substance produced by metabolism or by a metabolic process. See also Metabolism.
MICROBES:
Microscopic living organisms, including bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi.
MICROBICIDE:
An agent (e.g., a chemical or antibiotic) that destroys microbes. See also Microbes.
MUCOSAL IMMUNITY:
Resistance to infection across the mucous membranes. Dependent on immune cells and antibodies present in the lining of the urogenital tract, gastrointestinal tract and other parts of the body exposed to the outside world. See also Antibodies; Genitourinary Tract; Mucous Membrane.
MUCOUS MEMBRANE:
A moist layer of tissue that lines body cavities or passages that have an opening to the external world (e.g., the lining of the mouth, nostrils or vagina).
MUTATION:
In biology, a sudden change in a gene or unit of hereditary material that results in a new inheritable characteristic. In higher animals and many higher plants, a mutation may be transmitted to future generations only if it occurs in germ-or sex cell-tissue; body cell mutations cannot be inherited. Changes within the chemical structure of single genes may be induced by exposure to radiation, temperature extremes and certain chemicals. The term mutation may also be used to include losses or rearrangements of segments of chromosomes, the long strands of genes. Drugs such as colchicine double the normal number of chromosomes in a cell by interfering with cell division. Mutation, which can establish new traits in a population, is important in evolution. As related to HIV: HIV mutates rapidly. During the course of HIV disease, viral strains may emerge in an infected individual that differ widely in their ability to infect and kill different cell types, as well as in their rate of replication. Strains of HIV from patients with advanced disease appear to be more virulent and infect more cell types than strains obtained earlier from the same individual. See also Gene.
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NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE (NCI):
An NIH institute with the overall mission of conducting and supporting research, training and disseminating health information with respect to the causes, diagnosis and treatment of cancer. NCI also performs these functions for HIV infections and associated diseases. See also National Institutes of Health.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ALLERGY AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES (NIAID):
An NIH institute that conducts and supports research to study the causes of allergic, immunologic and infectious diseases, and to develop better means of preventing, diagnosing and treating illnesses. NIAID is responsible for the federally funded, national basic research program in AIDS. See also National Institutes of Health.
NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH (NIH):
A multi-institute agency of the Public Health Service, NIH is the federal focal point for health research. It conducts research in its own laboratories and supports research in universities, medical schools, hospitals and research institutions throughout this country and abroad. See also Public Health Service.
NATURAL KILLER CELLS:
(NK cells). A type of lymphocyte that does not carry the markers to be B cells or T cells. Like cytotoxic T cells, they attack and kill tumor cells and protect against a wide variety of infectious microbes. They are "natural" killers because they do not need additional stimulation or need to recognize a specific antigen in order to attack and kill. Persons with immunodeficiences such as those caused by HIV infection have a decrease in "natural" killer cell activity. See also Antigen; B Lymphocytes; Cytotoxic; Lymphocyte; Null Cell; T Cells.
NEUROPATHY:
The name given to a group of disorders involving nerves. Symptoms range from a tingling sensation or numbness in the toes and fingers to paralysis. It is estimated that 35 percent of people with HIV disease have some form of neuropathy. A "peripheral neuropathy" refers to the peripheral nerves outside the spinal cord.
NEUTRALIZATION:
The process by which an antibody binds to specific antigens, thereby "neutralizing" the microorganism. See also Antibodies; Antigen.
NUCLEOSIDE ANALOG:
Nucleosides are related to nucleotides, the subunits of nucleic acids; however, they do not carry the phosphate groups of the nucleotides. Nucleoside analogs generally are synthetic compounds similar to one of the components of DNA or RNA; a general type of antiviral drug (e.g., acyclovir and AZT). See also Acyclovir; AZT; Nucleic Acid.
NUCLEUS:
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OPEN-LABEL TRIAL:
A clinical trial in which doctors and participants know which drug or vaccine is being administered. See also Clinical Trial.
OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION:
1. An illness caused by an organism that usually does not cause disease in a person with a normal immune system. People with advanced HIV infection suffer opportunistic infections of the lungs, brain, eyes and other organs. 2. Opportunistic infections common in AIDS patients include Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, Kaposi's sarcoma, shigellosis, histoplasmosis and other parasitic, viral, and fungal infections, and some types of cancers. See also Histoplasmosis; Kaposi's Sarcoma; Pneumocystis carinii Pneumonia.
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PANDEMIC:
A disease prevalent throughout an entire country, continent or the whole world. See also Epidemic.
PAP SMEAR:
A method for the early detection of cancer and other abnormalities of the female genital tract, especially of the cervix and uterus, employing exfoliated cells (cells that have been shed into vaginal fluid) and a special staining technique for microscopic examination that differentiates diseased tissue. Also known as Papanicolaou Smear after George Papanicolaou, the American cytologist who developed this method and published it in 1943. See also Cervix; Uterus.
PARALLEL TRACK:
A system of distributing experimental drugs to patients who are unable to participate in ongoing clinical efficacy trials and have no other treatment options. See also Clinical Trial.
PATHOGEN:
Any disease-producing microorganism or material.
PATHOGENESIS:
The origin and development of a disease.
PEER REVIEW:
The process by which new scientific or medical findings, announced by one researcher, are reviewed by other scientists or physicians before these findings are published.
PERIPHERAL BLOOD MONONUCLEAR CELL (PBMC):
Cells in the bloodstream with one nucleus. See also Nucleus.
PHARMACOKINETICS:
The processes (in a living organism) of absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of a drug or vaccine.
PLACEBO:
An inactive substance against which investigational treatments are compared for efficacy. See also Placebo Controlled Study.
PLACEBO CONTROLLED STUDY:
A method of investigation of drugs in which an inactive substance (the placebo) is given to one group of patients, while the drug being tested is given to another group. The results obtained in the two groups are then compared.
PLACEBO EFFECT:
A physical or emotional change occurring after a substance is taken or administered that is not the result of any special property of the substance. The change may be beneficial, reflecting the expectations of the patient and, often, the expectations of the person giving the substance.
PLASMA:
That 10 percent of the blood that contains nutrients, electrolytes (dissolved salts), gases, albumin, clotting factors, wastes and hormones.
PLASMA CELLS:
Large antibody-producing cells that develop from B cells. See also Antibodies; B Lymphocytes.
PNEUMOCYSTIS CARINII PNEUMONIA (PCP):
1. A protozoal infection of the lungs. 2. A life-threatening lung infection that can affect people with weakened immune systems, such as those infected with HIV. More than three-quarters of all people with HIV disease will develop PCP if they do not receive treatment to prevent it. The standard treatment for people with PCP is either a combination of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX, also called Bactrim or Septra) or pentamidine. See also Pentamidine; Protozoa.
PREVALENCE:
A measure of the proportion of people in a population affected with a particular disease at a given time.
PROPHYLAXIS:
Treatment that helps to prevent a disease or condition before it occurs or recurs.
PROTEASE:
An enzyme that hydrolyzes (i.e., breaks down) proteins to their component peptides. See also Enzyme; Peptide; Proteins.
PROTEASE INHIBITORS:
HIV protease is an aspartyl enzyme essential to the replicative life cycle of HIV. The three-dimensional molecular structure of the HIV protease has been fully determined. Pharmaceutical developers are therefore able to rationally design compounds to inhibit it and thus interfere with replication of the virus. In the US, five peptide-based protease inhibitors (saquinavir, Roche; A-80987, ABT-538, Abbott Laboratories; L735,524, Merck; KNI-272, NCI) are in clinical development. All compounds inhibit HIV-1 in vitro in nanomolar concentrations. In Europe, two peptide-based compounds (ABT-987, Abbott Laboratories; AG-1343, Agouron Pharmaceuticals, Inc.) are currently in development. See also In Vitro.
PROTOCOL:
The detailed plan for a clinical trial that states the trial's rationale, purpose, drug or vaccine dosages, length of study, routes of administration, who may participate and other aspects of trial design. See also Clinical Trial; Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria.
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RANDOMIZED TRIAL:
A study in which participants are randomly assigned to either a treatment arm or placebo arm of a clinical trial. See also Clinical Trial; Placebo.
RECEPTOR:
A molecule on the surface of a cell that serves as a recognition or binding site for antigens, antibodies or other cellular or immunological components. See also Antibodies; Antigen.
RECOMBINANT:
An organism whose genome contains integrated genetic material from a different organism. See also Genome.
REGULATORY T CELLS:
T cells that direct other immune cells to perform special functions. The chief regulatory cell, the CD4+ T cell or T helper cell, is HIV's chief target. See also CD4 (T4) or CD4+ Cells; T Cells.
RETROVIRUS:
HIV and other viruses that carry their genetic material in the form of RNA and that have the enzyme reverse transcriptase. Like all viruses, HIV can replicate only inside cells, commandeering the cell's machinery to reproduce. Like other retroviruses, HIV uses the enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert its RNA into DNA, which is then integrated into the host cell DNA. See also DNA; Reverse Transcriptase; Ribonucleic Acid.
REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE:
This enzyme of the HIV virus (and other retroviruses) converts the single-stranded viral RNA into DNA, the form in which the cell carries its genes. The antiviral drugs approved in the US for the treatment of HIV infection-AZT, ddC and ddI-all work by interfering with this stage of the viral life cycle. See also AZT; ddC; ddI; DNA; Ribonucleic Acid.
RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA):
1. A nucleic acid, found mostly in the cytoplasm of cells, that is important in the synthesis of proteins. The amount of RNA varies from cell to cell. RNA, like the structurally similar DNA, is a chain made up of subunits called nucleotides. In protein synthesis, messenger RNA (mRNA) replicates the DNA code for a protein and moves to sites in the cell called ribosomes. There, transfer RNA (tRNA) assembles amino acids to form the protein specified by the messenger RNA. Most forms of RNA (including messenger and transfer RNA) consist of a single nucleotide strand, but a few forms of viral RNA that function as carriers of genetic information (instead of DNA) are double-stranded. 2. A nucleic acid associated with the control of chemical activities inside a cell. One type of RNA transfers information from the cell's DNA to the protein-forming system of a cell outside the nucleus. Some viruses (e.g., HIV) carry RNA instead of the more usual genetic material DNA. See also Cytoplasm; DNA; Retrovirus.
RNA:
See Ribonucleic Acid.
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SEROCONVERSION:
The development of antibodies to a particular antigen. When people develop antibodies to HIV or an experimental HIV vaccine, they "seroconvert" from antibody-negative to antibody-positive. See also Antibodies; Antigen.
SEROPREVALENCE:
As related to HIV infection: The proportion of persons who have serologic (i.e., pertaining to serum) evidence of HIV infection at any given time. See also Serum.
SEROSTATUS:
Results of a test for specific antibodies. See also Antibodies.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASE (STD):
Also called venereal disease. A contagious disease usually acquired by sexual intercourse or genital contact. Historically, the five venereal diseases were: gonorrhea, syphilis, chancroid, granuloma inguinale and lymphogranuloma venereum. To these have been added scabies, herpes genitalis and anorectal herpes and warts, pediculosis, trichomoniasis, genital candidiasis, molluscum contagiosum, nonspecific urethritis, chlamydial infections, cytomegalovirus and AIDS. See also Herpes Simplex Virus II; Molluscum Contagiosum.
SIDE EFFECTS:
The action or effect of a drug (or vaccine) other than that desired. The term usually refers to undesired or negative effects, such as headache, skin irritation or liver damage. Experimental drugs must be evaluated for both immediate and long-term side effects.
SIMIAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS (SIV):
An HIV-like virus that infects monkeys, chimpanzees and other nonhuman primates.
STD:
See Sexually Transmitted Disease.
STEM CELLS:
Cells from which all blood cells derive. Bone marrow is rich in stem cells.
SUBCLINICAL INFECTION:
An infection, or phase of infection, without readily apparent symptoms or signs of disease.
SUBCUTANEOUS:
Beneath or introduced beneath the skin (e.g., subcutaneous injections).
SUBUNIT HIV VACCINE:
A genetically engineered vaccine that is based on only part of the HIV molecule. See also Genetic Engineering.
SUPPRESSOR T CELLS:
(T8, CD8). Subset of T cells that halt antibody production and other immune responses. See also Antibodies; T Cells.
SURROGATE MARKER:
A substitute; a person or thing that replaces another. In HIV disease, the number of CD4+ T cells and CD8+ cells is a surrogate immunological marker of disease progression. See also CD4 (T4) or CD4+ Cells; CD8 (T8) Cells.
SURVEILLANCE:
Close or continuous observation or testing (e.g., serosurveillance), used, among others, in epidemiology. Immunological surveillance, or immunosurveillance, is a monitoring process of the immune system that detects and destroys neoplastic (e.g., cancerous) cells and that tends to break down in immunosuppressed individuals. See also Epidemiologic Surveillance.
SYMPTOMS:
Any perceptible, subjective change in the body or its functions that indicates disease or phases of disease, as reported by the patient.
SYNDROME:
A group of symptoms and diseases that together are characteristic of a specific condition.
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TAT:
One of the regulatory genes of the HIV virus. Three HIV regulatory genes-tat, rev and nef-and three so-called auxiliary genes-vif, vpr and vpu-contain information necessary for the production of proteins that control the virus's ability to infect a cell, produce new copies of the virus or cause disease. The tat gene is thought to enhance virus replication. See also nef; rev.
T CELLS:
(T Lymphocytes). A thymus-derived white blood cell that participates in a variety of cell-mediated immune reactions. Three fundamentally different types of T cells are recognized: helper, killer and suppressor (each has many subdivisions). T lymphocytes are CD3+ and can be separated into the CD4+ T helper cells and the CD8+ cytotoxic/suppresssor cells. See also Thymus.
THERAPEUTIC HIV VACCINE:
A vaccine designed to boost the immune response to HIV in persons already infected with the virus.
3TC:
Also known as Lamivudine, 3TC is composed of the (-) enantiomer of the racemic mixture 2'-deoxy-3'-thiacytidine. Like other nucleoside analogs, 3TC inhibits HIV replication through viral DNA chain termination. It has been used in clinical trials in combination with AZT. See also AZT; Nucleoside Analog.
TISSUE:
A collection of similar cells acting together to perform a particular function. There are four basic tissues in the body: epithelial, connective, muscle and nerve.
T LYMPHOCYTES:
See T Cells.
TOXICITY:
The extent, quality or degree of being poisonous or harmful to the body.
TRANSCRIPTION:
The process of constructing a messenger RNA molecule using a DNA molecule as a template with the resulting transfer of genetic information to the messenger RNA. As related to HIV: The process by which the provirus produces new viruses. RNA copies called messenger RNA must be made that can be read by the host cell's protein-making machinery. Transcription is facilitated by cellular enzymes, including RNA polymerase II. The viral genes may partly control this process: tat, for example, encodes a protein that accelerates the transcription process by binding to a section of the newly made viral RNA. See also Integration; Messenger RNA; tat; Template.
TRANSLATION:
As related to HIV: The process by which HIV messenger RNA is processed in a cell's nucleus and transported to the cytoplasm, the cellular material outside the nucleus. In the cytoplasm, the cell's protein-making machinery translates the messenger RNA into viral protein and enzymes. See also Cytoplasm; Enzyme; Messenger RNA; Nucleus.
TRANSMISSION:
In the context of HIV disease: HIV is spread most commonly by sexual contact with an infected partner. The virus can enter the body through the mucosal lining of the vagina, vulva, penis, rectum or, very rarely, the mouth during sex. The likelihood of transmission is increased by factors that may damage these linings, especially other sexually transmitted diseases that cause ulcers or inflammation. Studies of SIV infection of the genital membranes of nonhuman primates suggest that the sentinel cells known as mucosal dendritic cells may be the first cells infected. Infected dendritic cells may migrate to lymph nodes and infect other cells. HIV also is spread through contact with infected blood, most often by the sharing of drug needles or syringes contaminated with minute quantities of blood containing the virus. Children can contract HIV from their infected mothers either during pregnancy or birth, or postnatally, via breastfeeding. Current research indicates that the AIDS virus may be 100 to 1000 times more contagious during the first two months of infection, when routine AIDS tests are unable to tell whether people are infected. See also Lymph Nodes; Simian Immunodeficiency Virus.
TREATMENT IND:
A program to provide experimental treatments to a class of patients who lack satisfactory alternative treatment. IND stands for Investigational New Drug application, which is part of the process to get approval from the Food and Drug Administration for marketing a new prescription drug in the US. See also Investigational New Drug.
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VACCINATION:
Inoculation of a substance (vaccine) into the body for the purpose of producing active immunity against a disease. The vaccine is usually a weakened culture of the agent causing the disease; the use of vaccines is a cornerstone of preventive medicine. Vaccination was used in ancient times in China, India and Persia, and was introduced to the West in the late 18th century by E. Jenner. Vaccinations have eradicated smallpox and are used today to prevent diphtheria, poliomyelitis, rabies and typhoid. Experimental vaccines for certain cancers have been developed for laboratory mice. See also Inoculation.
VACCINE:
A substance that contains antigenic components from an infectious organism. By stimulating an immune response (but not disease), it protects against subsequent infection by that organism. See also Antigen; Vaccination.
VECTOR:
A nonpathogenic bacterium or virus used to transport an antigen into the body to stimulate protective immunity (e.g., in a vaccine). See also Antigen.
VIRAL BURDEN:
(Viral Load). The amount of HIV virus in the circulating blood. Monitoring a person's viral burden is important because of the apparent correlation between the amount of virus in the blood and the severity of the disease: sicker patients generally have more virus than those with less advanced disease. A new, sensitive, rapid test-called the branched DNA assay for HIV-1 infection-can be used to monitor the HIV viral burden. In the future, this procedure may help clinicians to decide when to give anti-HIV therapy. It may also help investigators determine more quickly if experimental HIV therapies are effective.
VIRAL CORE:
1. Typically a virus contains an RNA (ribonucleic acid) or DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) core of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat. See also DNA; Ribonucleic Acid. 2. As related to HIV: Within HIV's envelope is a bullet-shaped core made of another protein, p24, that surrounds the viral RNA. Each strand of HIV RNA contains the virus' nine genes. Three of these-gag, pol and env-are structural genes that contain information needed to make structural proteins. The env gene, for example, codes for gp160, a protein that is later broken down to gp120 and gp41. See also env; gp41; gp120; gp160; p24.
VIRAL ENVELOPE:
As related to HIV: HIV is spherical in shape with a diameter of 1/10,000 of a millimeter. The outer coat, or envelope, is composed of two layers of fat-like molecules called lipids, taken from the membranes of human cells. Embedded in the envelope are numerous cellular proteins, as well as mushroom-shaped HIV proteins that protrude from the surface. Each mushroom is thought toconsist of a cap made of four glycoprotein molecules called gp120, and a stem consisting of four gp41 molecules embedded in the envelope. The virus uses these proteins to attach to and infect cells.
VIREMIA:
The presence of virus in the bloodstream.
VIROLOGY:
The study of viruses and viral disease.
VIRUS:
Organism composed mainly of nucleic acid within a protein coat, ranging in size from 100 to 2000 angstroms (unit of length; 1 angstrom is equal to 10-10 meters); they can be seen only with an electron microscope. During the stage of their life cycle when they are free and infectious, viruses do not carry out the usual functions of living cells, such as respiration and growth; however, when they enter a living plant, animal or bacterial cell, they make use of the host cell's chemical energy and protein- and nucleic acid-synthesizing ability to replicate themselves. Viral nucleic acids are single- or double-stranded and may be DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid). After viral components are made by the infected host cell, virus particles are released; the host cell is often dissolved. Some viruses do not kill cells but transform them into a cancerous state; some cause illness and then seem to disappear, while remaining latent and later causing another, sometimes much more severe, form of disease. Viruses, known to cause cancer in animals, are suspected of causing cancer in humans. Viruses also cause measles, mumps, yellow fever, poliomyelitis, influenza and the common cold. Some viral infections can be treated with drugs. See also DNA; Nucleic Acid; Ribonucleic Acid.
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WASTING SYNDROME:
The HIV wasting syndrome involves involuntary weight loss of 10 percent of baseline body weight plus either chronic diarrhea (two loose stools per day for more than 30 days) or chronic weakness and documented fever (for 30 days or more, intermittent or constant) in the absence of a concurrent illness or condition other than HIV infection that would explain the findings.
WESTERN BLOT:
A laboratory test for the presence of specific antibodies, more accurate than the ELISA test. See also Antibodies; ELISA.
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S O U R C E S
AIDS Clinical Care, Vol. 7, No. 1 (January 1995). A.R. Rabson, Enumeration of T-Cell Subsets in Patients with HIV Infection, pp. 1-3.
AIDS/HIV Treatment Directory. American Foundation for AIDS Research. Vol. 2, No. 2 (August 1988); Vol. 7, No. 4 (January 1995).
AIDS Mood Upbeat-For a Change, by John Cohen. Science, Vol. 267, No. 5200 (February 17, 1995), pp. 959-960.
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1992.
CDC National Serosurveillance Summary, Vol. 3. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1992.
Clinical Manual for Care of the Adult Patient With HIV Infection. Edited by H. Libmen, M.D., and R.A. Witzburg, M.D. Boston: Boston City Hospital, Department of Medicine, 1990.
Concise Columbia Encyclopedia. New York: Columbia University Press, 1991.
Dendritic Cells: A Key to Early HIV Infection. NIAID News. Rockville, Maryland: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, January 30, 1995.
Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, 28th Edition. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, 1988.
Emerging Fungal Threat, by S. Sterber. Science, Vol. 266, No. 5191 (December 9, 1994), pp. 1632-1634.
Exposure to Hepatatis C Virus Does Not Protect Against Reinfections, Dimming Hopes for a Protective Vaccine. NIAID Fact Sheet Update. Rockville, Maryland: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, October 1, 1992.
Fauci: Host Factors Key to Control of HIV Infection. NIAID News. Rockville, Maryland: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, January 30, 1995.
Hepatitis. NIAID Fact Sheet. Rockville, Maryland: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, August 1992.
HIV/AIDS and Opportunistic Infections. NIAID Fact Sheet. Rockville, Maryland: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, November 1994.
HIV Vaccine Glossary. Rockville, Maryland: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, June 1994.
How HIV Causes AIDS. NIAID Backgrounder. Rockville, Maryland: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, April 1994.
Information Services for HIV/AIDS: Recommendations to the National Institutes of Health. Report of a conference cosponsored by the National Library of Medicine and the NIH Office of AIDS Research, June 28-30, 1993. NIH Publication No. 94-3730 (January 1994).
Interleukin-2 Produces Significant, Sustained Increase in CD4+ Cells in HIV-Infected People. NIAID News. Rockville, Maryland: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, March 1, 1995.
Journal of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, Vol. 3, No. 9 (1990): 896-903. Feingold, Anat R. et al. Cervical Cytologic Abnormalities and Papilloma Virus in Women Infected With Human Immunodeficiency Virus, September 1990.
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National AIDS Clearinghouse HIV Glossary. Prepared by the CDC National AIDS Clearinghouse, Rockville, Maryland.
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NIAID Researchers Report New Data on Non-Progressive HIV Infection. NIAID News. Rockville, Maryland: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, January 25, 1995.
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Test for HIV Viral Burden Promising in Clinical Setting. NIAID News. Rockville, Maryland: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, October 26, 1994.
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Webster's Medical Desk Dictionary. Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1986.
The six PHS agencies that co-sponsor the HIV/AIDS Treatment Information Service (ATIS) were instrumental in supporting this effort. ATIS, the newest component of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National AIDS Clearinghouse, is a free telephone reference service for health care providers and people with HIV infection. It provides the latest information about federally approved treatment guidelines. With the number of approved treatment guidelines increasing each year, it is essential for care providers and people living with HIV/AIDS to have one place to call for current treatment information.
AIDS Clinical Trials Information Service
AIDS Clinical Trials Information Service (ACTIS) provides up-to-date information on clinical trials that evaluate experimental drugs and other therapies for adults and children at all stages of HIV infection.
800-874-2572 (Voice)
800-243-7012 (Deaf Access/TDD)
301-738-6616 (Fax)
